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About
the Author
Table of Contents &
Sample Entry for
Ancient
Egyptian Animals
A
Research Report in Support of
A
Production Company's Project on the Exodus
Note: The report
included illustrations by me; however, because they were based, in Fair
Use (for purposes of research only), upon photographs and other
illustrations I located in various authoritative, copyrighted materials, I
have not reproduced them here.
(c)
1996 D.D.
Sample
Entry:
Crocodiles
Table
of Contents
Invertebrates
Fishes
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
INVERTEBRATES
1. CORALS: Red
Precious Coral etc.
2. MOLLUSKS
2A. SEASHELLS:
Oysters (The Common European
Oyster, The Great Pearl Oyster, etc.), Cowries
(The Panther Cowry etc.), Conch Shells,
and Murex Shells (The Spiny Dye Murex
etc.)
2B. SNAILS: Swamp
Snails, Land Snails, and Slugs
3. ANNELIDS
3A. EARTH WORMS
3B. SWAMP WORMS
3C. LEECHES: The
Horse Leech and The Nile Leech
4. ARTHROPODS
4A. SCORPIONS: The
Sahara Scorpion etc.
4B. SPIDERS: Fishing
Spiders, Web Spiders, etc.
4C. "SCINIPHS": Ticks,
Lice, Gnats, or Fleas?
4D. MAYFLIES
4E. DRAGONFLIES AND DAMSELFLIES
4F. LOCUSTS: The
Desert Locust
4G. AQUATIC BUGS: Water
Striders, Water Measurers, Water
Treaders, Water Boatmen,
Backswimmers, and Water-Scorpions
4H. SCALE INSECTS: Tamarisk
Manna Scales
4I. ANTLIONS
4J. ALDERFLIES, DOBSONFLIES, AND
FISHFLIES
4K. AQUATIC BEETLES: Predaceous
Diving Beetles, Whirligig Beetles, and
Water Scavenger Beetles
4L. SCARAB BEETLES: The
Sacred Scarab
4M. CADDISFLIES AND
CADDISWORMS
4N. MOTHS AND CATERPILLARS
4O. AQUATIC FLIES: Crane
Flies, Mosquitoes, Punkies ("No-See-Ums"),
Midges, and Black Flies
4P. FILTH FLIES: The
House Fly, The Stable Fly, etc.
4Q. ANTS
4R. HORNETS
4S. HONEY BEES: The
African Honey Bee
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FISHES
5. BICHIRS: The
Nile Bichir
6. EELS: The
European Eel
7. MORMYRIDS ETC.: The Electric "Eel" (Gymnarchus),
The Playful Nile Fish (Gnathonemus),
and Elephant-Trunk Fish (Campylomormyrus,
including The Oxyrhynchus Fish)
8. TIGERFISH: The Nile-Dog
9. DANIOS
10.
BARBS
11.
CATFISH: The
Electric Catfish and Upside-Down Catfish
12.
PERCH: The
Nile Perch
13.
MOUTH-BREEDERS: The
Egyptian Mouth-Breeder (Haplochromis)
and The Nile Mouth-Breeder (Tilapia,
or Chromis)
14.
MULLETS: The
Golden-Grey Mullet
15.
PUFFERFISH: The
Nile Pufferfish (The Fahak)
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AMPHIBIANS
16.
FROGS: The
Marsh Frog (akin to The Israeli Laughing Frog)
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REPTILES
17.
TURTLES AND TORTOISES: A
Nile Soft-Shelled Turtle, The Little Egyptian Tortoise, and The Spur-Thighed
Mediterranean Tortoise
18.
LIZARDS
18A. GECKOS: The Common Gecko, The House
Gecko, and Other Desert Geckos
18B. AGAMAS: The Desert Agama and The Egyptian
Spiny-Tailed Lizard
18C. CHAMELEONS: The European Chameleon and The African Chameleon
18D. SKINKS: The Common Skink etc.
18E. MONITORS: The Nile Monitor and The Desert
Monitor
19.
SNAKES
19A. BOAS: The Egyptian Sand Boa
19B. COBRAS: The
Egyptian Cobra (An "Asp")
19C. VIPERS: The Horned Desert Viper (A Sidewinder),
The Avicenna Viper, and The Pale
Carpet Viper
20.
CROCODILES: The
Nile Crocodile
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BIRDS
21.
OSTRICHES: The
Ostrich
22.
PELICANS, CORMORANTS, ETC.
22A. PELICANS: The
Eastern White Pelican
22B. CORMORANTS: The Common Cormorant
23.
HERONS, STORKS, IBISES, ETC.
23A. HERONS: The
Common (Great Gray) Heron, The
Squacco Heron, and The Black-Crowned
Night Heron
23B. EGRETS: The Cattle Egret and The Little
Egret
23C. STORKS: The White Stork
23D. IBISES: The Sacred Ibis and The Glossy Ibis
23E. SPOONBILLS: The Spoonbill
24.
WATERFOWL
24A. GEESE: The White-Fronted Goose, The Greylag
Goose, and (less commonly) The Bean
Goose and The Red-Breasted Goose
24B. SHELDUCKS: The Egyptian (or Nile) "Goose" and The Ruddy
Shelduck
24C. DUCKS: The Pintail, The European Wigeon,
and The Common Teal
25.
BIRDS OF PREY
25A. KITES: The Egyptian Scavenging Kite (A
Black Kite) and The Black-Shouldered Kite
25B. HAWKS: The
African Sparrow Hawk and The
Longlegged Buzzard
25C. VULTURES: The Egyptian Vulture and The
Griffon Vulture
25D. EAGLES: The Short-Toed Eagle
25E. OSPREYS: The Osprey
25F. FALCONS: The
Old World Kestrel and The Desert
(Peregrine) Falcon
26.
FOWL ETC.
26A. PARTRIDGES: The Sand Partridge
26B. QUAIL: The Migratory Quail
26C. GUINEAFOWL: The Helmeted Guineafowl
26D. CHICKENS: The Red Jungle Fowl (and perhaps
Domestic Breeds)
27.
MOORHENS, COOTS, CRANES, ETC.
27A. MOORHENS: The Common Moorhen
27B. COOTS: The European Coot
27C. CRANES: The Common Crane
27D. BUSTARDS: The Houbara Bustard
28.
SANDPIPERS, PLOVERS, GULLS, TERNS, ETC.
28A. SANDPIPERS: The Common Sandpiper
28B. AVOCETS: The Old World Avocet
28C. LAPWINGS AND PLOVERS: The
(European) Lapwing, The Spur-Winged Plover, The White-Tailed
Plover, and The Sociable Plover
28D. PAINTED SNIPES: The
African Painted Snipe
28E. CROCODILE BIRDS: The
Egyptian "Plover"
28F. GULLS: The Herring Gull, The Common Gull,
The Little Gull, etc.
28G. TERNS: The Gull-Billed Tern, The Whiskered
Tern, The Common Tern, etc.
29.
PIGEONS, DOVES, ETC.
29A. PIGEONS AND DOVES: The
Rockdove, Domestic Pigeons, and
The Turtle Dove
29B. SANDGROUSE: The
Spotted Sandgrouse
30.
OWLS
30A. BARN OWLS: The
Barn Owl
30B. TYPICAL OWLS: The
Little Owl and The Eagle Owl
31.
NIGHTHAWKS ETC.: The
Egyptian Nightjar
32.
SWIFTS ETC.: The
Pallid Swift
33.
KINGFISHERS ETC.
33A. KINGFISHERS: The
Lesser Pied Kingfisher and The
Common Eurasian Kingfisher
33B. BEE-EATERS: The
Little Green Bee-Eater and The
Blue-Cheeked Bee-Eater
33C. HOOPOES: The
Hoopoe
34.
PERCHING BIRDS (SONGBIRDS ETC.)
34A. LARKS: The
Desert Lark, The Bifasciated
Lark, and The Crested Lark
34B. SWALLOWS: The Common (Barn) Swallow and The Bank Swallow (The Sand
Martin)
34C. BULBULS: The
White-Vented Bulbul
34D. SHRIKES: The Great Gray Shrike (The Northern
Shrike)
34E. WARBLERS: The Clamorous Reed Warbler,
The Spectacled Warbler, The Sardinian Warbler, etc.
34F. BUNTINGS: The Ortolan Bunting
34G. SPARROWS: The House Sparrow
34H. ORIOLES: The Golden Oriole
34I. RAVENS, ROOKS, AND CROWS:
The
Brown-Necked Raven
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MAMMALS
35.
INSECTIVORES
35A. HEDGEHOGS: The Long-Eared Desert Hedgehog and The Ethiopian Desert
Hedgehog
35B. SHREWS: The Lesser White-Toothed Shrew
35C. ELEPHANT-SHREWS: The
North African Elephant-Shrew
36.
BATS
36A.
FRUIT BATS: The
Egyptian Fruit Bat
36B. TOMB BATS: Short-Tailed Tomb Bats and
Long-Tailed Tomb Bats
37.
PRIMATES (NON-HUMAN)
37A. BABOONS: The
Sacred (Hamadryas) Baboon and The
Anubis Baboon
37B. OTHER MONKEYS: The
(Long-Tailed) Grass Monkey (A
Guenon)
38.
PRIMITIVE CARNIVORES
38A. WEASELS: The
North African Banded Weasel
38B. OTTERS: The
Eurasian River Otter
38C. GENETS: The
Common (Small-Spotted) Genet
38D. MONGOOSES: The
Egyptian Mongoose (The Ichneumon)
38E. HYENAS: The Striped Hyena and The Aardwolf
39.
CANINES
39A. WOLVES AND "WOLF DOGS": The
Egyptian (or Libyan) Gray Wolf and Pariah Dogs (Feral Mutts, like
Dingoes)
39B. DOMESTIC DOGS: (Pointer/Hunter)
Basenji-types, (sleek) Greyhound/Saluki/Ibizan/Pharaoh Hound-types,
(short-legged)
Dachshund-types, (small- to mid-sized)
Terrier/Pomeranian-types, (large) Mastiff-types, and (mixed-breed)
Mongrels
39C. JACKALS: The Golden Jackal and The Black-Backed
Jackal
39D. FOXES: The Fennec and The Sand Fox
39E. WILD HUNTING DOGS: The
African Wild Dog
40.
FELINES
40A. DOMESTIC CATS: Orange
Tabbies (Abyssinian- or Mau-/Miw-types)
40B. SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED WILD
CATS:
The
African Wild Cat, The Caracal (The Desert "Lynx"), and The
Jungle Cat (The Swamp
"Lynx")
40C. BIG CATS: The Leopard, The Cheetah, and
The Lion
41.
ELEPHANTS: The
African Elephant
42.
SEA-COWS: The
Dugong
43.
HYRAXES: The
Coney (The Abyssinian Rock Hyrax)
44.
HORSES AND RHINOCEROS
44A. WILD ASSES: The Nubian Wild Ass
44B. DOMESTIC ASSES: The
Donkey
44C. DOMESTIC HORSES: Arabian-type
44D. RHINOCEROS: The African Black Rhinoceros
45.
SWINE AND HIPPOPOTAMUSES
45A. WILD SWINE: The
Wild Boar
45B. DOMESTIC SWINE: The
Domestic Pig
45C. HIPPOPOTAMUSES: The
Hippopotamus
46.
PRIMITIVE RUMINANTS
46A. CAMELS: The
Arabian Camel (including The
Dromedary, a riding breed)
46B. GIRAFFES: The
Nubian Giraffe
46C. DEER: The
Persian Fallow Deer
47.
OXEN
47A. WILD BULLS: The North African Aurochs
47B. DOMESTIC CATTLE: Egyptian
Longhorn, Shorthorn, and Hornless (Fancy)
48.
ANTELOPE
48A. HARTEBEEST: The North African Hartebeest
48B. ORYXES: The
Scimitar Oryx, The Arabian Oryx?,
and The Addax
48C. GAZELLE: The
Dorcas Gazelle
48D.
DIBATAGS: The
Dibatag
49.
GOATS AND SHEEP
49A. DOMESTIC GOATS: Screwhorn-types
49B. WILD GOATS: The Nubian Ibex
49C. WILD SHEEP: The
Egyptian Barbary Sheep
49D. DOMESTIC SHEEP: Barki-type
(Saharan-type)
50.
RODENTS
50A. RATS: The
Black Rat
50B. MICE: The
House Mouse and The Egyptian and Sinai Spiny Mice
50C. JERBOAS: The
Desert Jerboa
50D. PORCUPINES: The
Crested Porcupine
51.
HARES: The
Cape Hare
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Sample
Entry:
Crocodiles
Species:
The Nile Crocodile
Biology:
Related to the dinosaurs (as well as to the birds), the Nile
crocodile is the "king of African reptiles".
For most of the day,
particularly in the morning and the late afternoon, crocodiles sun
themselves onshore. As the
temperature rises towards midday, the crocodiles cool themselves by
basking with their mouths wide open.
Although they are typically
sluggish, crocodiles have "swift feet" (as the ancient Egyptians
noted), capable of occasional sprints, probably trotting (apparently only
young crocodiles truly gallop). In
walking, a crocodile typically raises its body well off the ground, each
lower-leg fairly vertical, each upper-leg fairly horizontal.
On soft mud, the webbed feet of a crocodile act like snowshoes.
In search of water,
crocodiles may travel some distance overland, sometimes wandering into
human settlements; and during cold or hot weather, young crocodiles may
dug burrows into riverbanks, by taking mouthfuls of dirt out of the bank
and shaking them out underwater.
During the midday heat,
crocodiles either walk on their legs into the shade or paddle with their
legs and slide on their bellies (down well-polished riverbanks) into the
water (in whose insulating environment the cold-blooded creatures also
seek refuge at night). In
particular, although it could be found under willow trees on the ancient
riverbank, the Nile crocodile prefers to hide amongst the floating leaves
of pondweed in sluggish areas of the river as well as in swamps and other
large, shallow bodies of water. Although
it generally avoids open water, the Nile crocodile has been known to swim
out to sea.
Crocodiles are well adapted
to life in the water, with a streamlined body, webbed feet, and a powerful
tail for swimming; closable nostrils, for submerging; and nostrils and
eyes high atop the head, for ambushing prey.
With stones lying heavy in
its belly, just the top of its head breaking the surface of the water, and
the length of its body resembling a harmless piece of driftwood, the Nile
crocodile is infamous for lying in wait and then ambushing thirsty mammals
as they come down to the river to drink.
Sometimes stunned by a blow from the crocodile's head or tail, the
prey is seized by the reptile's jaws, dragged into the water, and drowned
before being eaten. Likewise,
large prey seized on land, as on game trails, is typically taken back to
the water to be eaten.
Although (as the ancient
Egyptians noted) crocodiles have "terrible jaws", which seize
their prey effectively, their teeth do not tear food well.
Small prey is typically swallowed whole, but the skin and flesh of
large prey (after its ears and tail have been bitten off) must be softened
before it can be torn into: To
do so, the crocodile typically stores the kill in a hollow underwater
until it is partially decayed. When
ready to eat, the large carcass is again seized by the jaws of the
crocodile, which then spins underwater violently lengthwise, tearing the
cadaver to pieces, each of which it swallows at the surface with a jerky
motion of its head. Note,
too, that although they can snap a timber in two, the jaws of a crocodile
can be held shut by hand (The musculature is leveraged to close, not open)
and that unlike alligators, crocodiles have a relatively narrow snout and
a prominent fourth tooth on the lower jaw (which fits into a groove in
either side of the upper jaw but remains visible even when the jaws are
closed).
Although they fulfill a
vital niche in the environment, Nile crocodiles are notoriously
aggressive, especially when guarding their young (See below) or when
cornered in shrinking pools of water (as during a drought or perhaps as
the floodwaters of the Nile receded in the fall). Although "man
eating" apparently happens mostly by chance, when people come down to
the water, there are isolated reports of crocodiles actually leaving the
water to go after people. Most
crocodiles, however, feed mainly on fish. Large crocodiles do feed significantly on other vertebrates
(primarily antelope but also such species as cattle, giraffes, young
hippos, lions, wild dogs, hyenas, porcupines, birds, and turtles); and
young crocodiles feed significantly on invertebrates (although larger prey
can be taken, by stalking, then pouncing on the victim, the young
crocodile then moving its head sideways as it snaps its jaws).
Crocodiles also feed on carrion in the water, such as bull hippos
that have been killed in fights, the crocodiles often feeding together
peaceably.
Crocodiles, however, do not
feed on "crocodile birds" -- typically the Egyptian
"plover" (28E) but sometimes such birds as the spur-winged
plover (28C) and the common sandpiper (28A) -- which feed on parasitic
ticks and insects that they find in between the scales on the tough hide
of a crocodile, as it basks in the sun.
Reportedly, crocodile birds may even venture into the wide-open
mouths of the giant reptiles, for leeches and pieces of meat (The
crocodiles have no movable tongue with which to clean their own teeth):
While sunbathing, crocodiles are apparently not interested in
feeding (Moreover, some waterbirds build their nests near those of
crocodiles, where they are indirectly protected but not directly
threatened by the mother standing guard). In addition to the "cleaning service" provided by
crocodile birds, crocodiles benefit from hearing any warning calls issued
by the birds: With such
disturbances, the crocodiles immediately slide into the water.
During the mating season,
bull crocodiles lift their heads, open their mouths, and let out long,
rolling bellows. Full-grown
male crocodiles stake-out territories; and although they tolerate females
and younger males, they fight rival males, sometimes to the death.
During the dry season, a
female Nile crocodile uses her forefeet to dig a pit 8 to 20 inches deep
(the sand pushed away by her hindlegs) perhaps 30 feet from the water on a
sandy beach; and in it, at night, she lays over 40 eggs, which she then
covers with grass or with the soil she had dug-out of the hole.
The mother then guards her nest, by lying atop, moving only during
periods of extreme heat, to cool herself in nearby shade or to briefly
immerse herself in nearby water. During
the rainy season (teeming with insects), the young -- still within the
eggs underground -- grunt or squeak loudly enough for their mother to
hear them; and she promptly digs them out.
At this critical time, the mother will even attack people on land
who venture too near (an otherwise uncharacteristic behavior).
During their first week or so of life, the foot-long hatchlings
(retaining their yolk sacs) closely follow their mother, like ducklings
after a mother duck: They
greet their mother with grunts; climb onto her head and snout; swim after
her if she submerges; yap if they get lost; forage for insects everywhere,
even up into trees; and boisterously squeak, grunt, and snap at one
another.
Despite the growling,
snapping protection of their mother, many of the eggs and hatchlings of
the Nile crocodile are eaten by such predators as ants, catfish,
soft-shelled turtles, herons, storks, eagles, ospreys, and baboons by day
and owls, mongooses, and hyenas at night.
The #1 nest-robbers, however, are monitor lizards, which boldly
dig-up the eggs (sometimes right under the body of the mother), take them
to cover (one by one), break them open, and eat their contents. Although
crocodiles sometimes nest close together and although mother crocodiles
often protect 2- to 3-week-old young from several nests that have come
together (before they go out on their own, under cover), crocodiles
occasionally raid each other's nests; and given their cannibalistic
habits, growing crocodiles bask or otherwise associate only with others of
their own size!
Mortal enemies of adult
crocodiles are few but include leopards, lions, and elephants; and hippos
will vigorously defend their young against the hungry reptiles.
Living up to a century or
more, the Nile crocodile may grow to 20 feet or more long!
Egyptology:
"Crocodile" was a given name, presumably implying
formidability. Such items as
wax toys were shaped like crocodiles, and such a toy was even the subject
of a popular story.
The Nile crocodile was
"The Aggressor", attacking bathers, women filling waterpots,
laundrymen (a very undesirable occupation), herdsmen and their herds
drinking or crossing water, survivors of shipwrecks, and anyone else who
came down to the otherwise life-giving Nile (along stretches of which
barriers were probably erected). Such
ever-present threats from crocodiles were "abetted" by
magicians.
To appease its hunger for
human flesh and to appreciate that -- like the sun -- it arose out of
the waters each morning, the crocodile was worshipped as Sobek -- god of
the sun, earth, and water -- typically depicted wearing the crown of
Osiris, adorned with reeds, ostrich feathers, and ram's horns (although
the worshippers of Osiris and Horus often deemed this "Rapacious
Creature" an ally of their immortal enemy Seth, typically represented
by that other denizen of the waters, the hippopotamus).
To the dismay of the many who worshipped various fish, those who
worshipped the crocodile considered fish "rebellious" and
fishing holy! Moreover, as
the provider of water, Sobek was the patron god of such oasis-cities as
Crocodilopolis, in whose temple pools select crocodiles were worshiped by
priests: The lucky reptiles
were presented with regular gifts of cakes and honey wine and annual
sacrifices of beautiful virgins; they were adorned with such jewelry as
pendants of gemstones or gold for their ears and bracelets for their
forelegs; and upon their death, these chosen crocodiles were mummified and
laid to eternal rest in sacred coffins.
Other Egyptians, however, as in Elephantine, despised crocodiles
and even ate their flesh!
Finally, the goddess Ammut --
with the head of a crocodile, the body of a lionness, and the hindquarters
of a hippo -- was the Devourer of the Dead, who would eat the heart of
any of the deceased judged unworthy for the afterlife (See also the jackal
(39C), as Anubis).
Bibliology:
Ezekiel mentions (in Hebrew) a great, fearsome "tannim"
as living in the rivers of Egypt -- probably the Nile crocodile (although
sometimes translated as a "dragon").
In several passages (as in Job), the Old Testament mentions a
"livyatan", an aquatic leviathan with massive jaws, terrible
teeth, close-fitting scales, and sharp claws -- probably a crocodile
(although sometimes translated as a whale).
After crossing the
Mediterranean, the Nile crocodile at one time lived in the coastal
waterways of Israel.
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